diff --git a/system/BaseModel.php b/system/BaseModel.php
index 6b2edc43947f..1ab9a2019d8e 100644
--- a/system/BaseModel.php
+++ b/system/BaseModel.php
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DatabaseException;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DataException;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Query;
+use CodeIgniter\Database\RawSql;
 use CodeIgniter\DataCaster\Cast\CastInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\DataConverter\DataConverter;
 use CodeIgniter\Entity\Cast\CastInterface as EntityCastInterface;
@@ -780,6 +781,67 @@ public function getInsertID()
         return is_numeric($this->insertID) ? (int) $this->insertID : $this->insertID;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * Validates that the primary key values are valid for update/delete/insert operations.
+     * Throws exception if invalid.
+     *
+     * @param int|list<int|string>|RawSql|string $id
+     * @param bool                               $allowArray Whether to allow array of IDs (true for update/delete, false for insert)
+     *
+     * @throws InvalidArgumentException
+     */
+    protected function validateID($id, bool $allowArray = true): void
+    {
+        if (is_array($id)) {
+            // Check if arrays are allowed
+            if (! $allowArray) {
+                throw new InvalidArgumentException(
+                    'Invalid primary key: only a single value is allowed, not an array.',
+                );
+            }
+
+            // Check for empty array
+            if ($id === []) {
+                throw new InvalidArgumentException('Invalid primary key: cannot be an empty array.');
+            }
+
+            // Validate each ID in the array recursively
+            foreach ($id as $key => $valueId) {
+                if (is_array($valueId)) {
+                    throw new InvalidArgumentException(
+                        sprintf('Invalid primary key at index %s: nested arrays are not allowed.', $key),
+                    );
+                }
+
+                // Recursive call for each value (single values only in recursion)
+                $this->validateID($valueId, false);
+            }
+
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Allow RawSql objects for complex scenarios
+        if ($id instanceof RawSql) {
+            return;
+        }
+
+        // Check for invalid single values
+        if (in_array($id, [null, 0, '0', '', true, false], true)) {
+            $type = is_bool($id) ? 'boolean ' . var_export($id, true) : var_export($id, true);
+
+            throw new InvalidArgumentException(
+                sprintf('Invalid primary key: %s is not allowed.', $type),
+            );
+        }
+
+        // Only allow int and string at this point
+        if (! is_int($id) && ! is_string($id)) {
+            throw new InvalidArgumentException(
+                sprintf('Invalid primary key: must be int or string, %s given.', get_debug_type($id)),
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
     /**
      * Inserts data into the database. If an object is provided,
      * it will attempt to convert it to an array.
@@ -962,19 +1024,19 @@ public function insertBatch(?array $set = null, ?bool $escape = null, int $batch
      * Updates a single record in the database. If an object is provided,
      * it will attempt to convert it into an array.
      *
-     * @param int|list<int|string>|string|null $id
-     * @param object|row_array|null            $row
+     * @param int|list<int|string>|RawSql|string|null $id
+     * @param object|row_array|null                   $row
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
     public function update($id = null, $row = null): bool
     {
-        if (is_bool($id)) {
-            throw new InvalidArgumentException('update(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.');
-        }
+        if ($id !== null) {
+            if (! is_array($id)) {
+                $id = [$id];
+            }
 
-        if (is_numeric($id) || is_string($id)) {
-            $id = [$id];
+            $this->validateID($id);
         }
 
         $row = $this->transformDataToArray($row, 'update');
@@ -1091,8 +1153,8 @@ public function updateBatch(?array $set = null, ?string $index = null, int $batc
     /**
      * Deletes a single record from the database where $id matches.
      *
-     * @param int|list<int|string>|string|null $id    The rows primary key(s).
-     * @param bool                             $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting.
+     * @param int|list<int|string>|RawSql|string|null $id    The rows primary key(s).
+     * @param bool                                    $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting.
      *
      * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode.
      *
@@ -1100,12 +1162,12 @@ public function updateBatch(?array $set = null, ?string $index = null, int $batc
      */
     public function delete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
     {
-        if (is_bool($id)) {
-            throw new InvalidArgumentException('delete(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.');
-        }
+        if ($id !== null) {
+            if (! is_array($id)) {
+                $id = [$id];
+            }
 
-        if (! in_array($id, [null, 0, '0'], true) && (is_numeric($id) || is_string($id))) {
-            $id = [$id];
+            $this->validateID($id);
         }
 
         $eventData = [
diff --git a/system/Model.php b/system/Model.php
index 108ff17cf849..dc3e4db94db2 100644
--- a/system/Model.php
+++ b/system/Model.php
@@ -311,8 +311,13 @@ protected function doInsert(array $row)
 
         // Require non-empty primaryKey when
         // not using auto-increment feature
-        if (! $this->useAutoIncrement && ! isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
-            throw DataException::forEmptyPrimaryKey('insert');
+        if (! $this->useAutoIncrement) {
+            if (! isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
+                throw DataException::forEmptyPrimaryKey('insert');
+            }
+
+            // Validate the primary key value (arrays not allowed for insert)
+            $this->validateID($row[$this->primaryKey], false);
         }
 
         $builder = $this->builder();
@@ -368,6 +373,9 @@ protected function doInsertBatch(?array $set = null, ?bool $escape = null, int $
                 if (! isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
                     throw DataException::forEmptyPrimaryKey('insertBatch');
                 }
+
+                // Validate the primary key value
+                $this->validateID($row[$this->primaryKey], false);
             }
         }
 
@@ -381,7 +389,7 @@ protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool
 
         $builder = $this->builder();
 
-        if (! in_array($id, [null, '', 0, '0', []], true)) {
+        if (is_array($id) && $id !== []) {
             $builder = $builder->whereIn($this->table . '.' . $this->primaryKey, $id);
         }
 
@@ -409,7 +417,7 @@ protected function doDelete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
         $set     = [];
         $builder = $this->builder();
 
-        if (! in_array($id, [null, '', 0, '0', []], true)) {
+        if (is_array($id) && $id !== []) {
             $builder = $builder->whereIn($this->primaryKey, $id);
         }
 
diff --git a/tests/system/Models/DeleteModelTest.php b/tests/system/Models/DeleteModelTest.php
index 0294ab32aed9..9d97ca50fa74 100644
--- a/tests/system/Models/DeleteModelTest.php
+++ b/tests/system/Models/DeleteModelTest.php
@@ -14,6 +14,8 @@
 namespace CodeIgniter\Models;
 
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DatabaseException;
+use CodeIgniter\Database\RawSql;
+use CodeIgniter\Exceptions\InvalidArgumentException;
 use CodeIgniter\Exceptions\ModelException;
 use PHPUnit\Framework\Attributes\DataProvider;
 use PHPUnit\Framework\Attributes\Group;
@@ -37,6 +39,17 @@ public function testDeleteBasics(): void
         $this->dontSeeInDatabase('job', ['name' => 'Developer']);
     }
 
+    public function testDeleteWithRawSql(): void
+    {
+        $this->createModel(JobModel::class);
+        $this->seeInDatabase('job', ['name' => 'Developer']);
+
+        // RawSql objects should be allowed as primary key values
+        $result = $this->model->delete(new RawSql('1'));
+        $this->assertTrue($result);
+        $this->dontSeeInDatabase('job', ['name' => 'Developer']);
+    }
+
     public function testDeleteFail(): void
     {
         // WARNING this value will persist! take care to roll it back.
@@ -152,29 +165,60 @@ public function testOnlyDeleted(): void
 
     /**
      * Given an explicit empty value in the WHERE condition
-     * When executing a soft delete
+     * When executing a soft delete with where() clause
      * Then an exception should not be thrown
      *
+     * This test uses where() so values go into WHERE clause, not through validateID().
+     *
      * @param int|string|null $emptyValue
      */
-    #[DataProvider('emptyPkValues')]
+    #[DataProvider('provideDontThrowExceptionWhenSoftDeleteConditionIsSetWithEmptyValue')]
     public function testDontThrowExceptionWhenSoftDeleteConditionIsSetWithEmptyValue($emptyValue): void
     {
         $this->createModel(UserModel::class);
+
+        if ($this->db->DBDriver === 'Postgre' && in_array($emptyValue, ['', true, false], true)) {
+            $this->markTestSkipped('PostgreSQL does not allow empty string, true, or false for integer columns');
+        }
+
         $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['name' => 'Derek Jones', 'deleted_at IS NULL' => null]);
 
         $this->model->where('id', $emptyValue)->delete();
-        $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['name' => 'Derek Jones', 'deleted_at IS NULL' => null]);
+        // Special case: true converted to 1
+        if ($emptyValue === true) {
+            $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['name' => 'Derek Jones', 'deleted_at IS NOT NULL' => null]);
+        } else {
+            $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['name' => 'Derek Jones', 'deleted_at IS NULL' => null]);
+        }
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Data provider for tests using where() clause.
+     * These values go into WHERE clause, not through validateID().
+     *
+     * @return iterable<array{bool|int|string|null}>
+     */
+    public static function provideDontThrowExceptionWhenSoftDeleteConditionIsSetWithEmptyValue(): iterable
+    {
+        return [
+            [0],
+            [null],
+            ['0'],
+            [''],
+            [true],
+            [false],
+        ];
     }
 
     /**
      * @param int|string|null $emptyValue
+     * @param class-string    $exception
      */
     #[DataProvider('emptyPkValues')]
-    public function testThrowExceptionWhenSoftDeleteParamIsEmptyValue($emptyValue): void
+    public function testThrowExceptionWhenSoftDeleteParamIsEmptyValue($emptyValue, string $exception, string $exceptionMessage): void
     {
-        $this->expectException(DatabaseException::class);
-        $this->expectExceptionMessage('Deletes are not allowed unless they contain a "where" or "like" clause.');
+        $this->expectException($exception);
+        $this->expectExceptionMessage($exceptionMessage);
 
         $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['name' => 'Derek Jones', 'deleted_at IS NULL' => null]);
 
@@ -183,16 +227,17 @@ public function testThrowExceptionWhenSoftDeleteParamIsEmptyValue($emptyValue):
 
     /**
      * @param int|string|null $emptyValue
+     * @param class-string    $exception
      */
     #[DataProvider('emptyPkValues')]
-    public function testDontDeleteRowsWhenSoftDeleteParamIsEmpty($emptyValue): void
+    public function testDontDeleteRowsWhenSoftDeleteParamIsEmpty($emptyValue, string $exception, string $exceptionMessage): void
     {
         $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['name' => 'Derek Jones', 'deleted_at IS NULL' => null]);
 
         try {
             $this->createModel(UserModel::class)->delete($emptyValue);
-        } catch (DatabaseException) {
-            // Do nothing.
+        } catch (DatabaseException|InvalidArgumentException) {
+            // Do nothing - both exceptions are expected for different values.
         }
 
         $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['name' => 'Derek Jones', 'deleted_at IS NULL' => null]);
@@ -233,15 +278,13 @@ public function testPurgeDeletedWithSoftDeleteFalse(): void
 
     /**
      * @param int|string|null $id
+     * @param class-string    $exception
      */
     #[DataProvider('emptyPkValues')]
-    public function testDeleteThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id): void
+    public function testDeleteThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id, string $exception, string $exceptionMessage): void
     {
-        // BaseBuilder throws Exception.
-        $this->expectException(DatabaseException::class);
-        $this->expectExceptionMessage(
-            'Deletes are not allowed unless they contain a "where" or "like" clause.',
-        );
+        $this->expectException($exception);
+        $this->expectExceptionMessage($exceptionMessage);
 
         // $useSoftDeletes = false
         $this->createModel(JobModel::class);
@@ -251,15 +294,13 @@ public function testDeleteThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id): void
 
     /**
      * @param int|string|null $id
+     * @param class-string    $exception
      */
     #[DataProvider('emptyPkValues')]
-    public function testDeleteWithSoftDeleteThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id): void
+    public function testDeleteWithSoftDeleteThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id, string $exception, string $exceptionMessage): void
     {
-        // Model throws Exception.
-        $this->expectException(DatabaseException::class);
-        $this->expectExceptionMessage(
-            'Deletes are not allowed unless they contain a "where" or "like" clause.',
-        );
+        $this->expectException($exception);
+        $this->expectExceptionMessage($exceptionMessage);
 
         // $useSoftDeletes = true
         $this->createModel(UserModel::class);
@@ -267,12 +308,77 @@ public function testDeleteWithSoftDeleteThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause
         $this->model->delete($id);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * @return iterable<string, array{mixed, class-string, string}>
+     */
     public static function emptyPkValues(): iterable
     {
         return [
-            [0],
-            [null],
-            ['0'],
+            'null' => [
+                null,
+                DatabaseException::class,
+                'Deletes are not allowed unless they contain a "where" or "like" clause.',
+            ],
+            'false' => [
+                false,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean false is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            '0 integer' => [
+                0,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: 0 is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            "'0' string" => [
+                '0',
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '0' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'empty string' => [
+                '',
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'true' => [
+                true,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean true is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'empty array' => [
+                [],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: cannot be an empty array.',
+            ],
+            'nested array' => [
+                [[1, 2]],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key at index 0: nested arrays are not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'array with null' => [
+                [1, null, 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: NULL is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'array with 0' => [
+                [1, 0, 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: 0 is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            "array with '0'" => [
+                [1, '0', 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '0' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'array with empty string' => [
+                [1, '', 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'array with boolean' => [
+                [1, false, 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean false is not allowed.',
+            ],
         ];
     }
 }
diff --git a/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php b/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
index 11b079be3ab4..baf6b45ea7f0 100644
--- a/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
+++ b/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
@@ -15,9 +15,11 @@
 
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DataException;
 use CodeIgniter\Entity\Entity;
+use CodeIgniter\Exceptions\InvalidArgumentException;
 use CodeIgniter\I18n\Time;
 use CodeIgniter\Model;
 use Config\Database;
+use PHPUnit\Framework\Attributes\DataProvider;
 use PHPUnit\Framework\Attributes\Group;
 use stdClass;
 use Tests\Support\Entity\User;
@@ -407,4 +409,108 @@ public function testInsertBatchWithCasts(): void
         $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['email' => json_encode($userData[0]['email'])]);
         $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['email' => json_encode($userData[1]['email'])]);
     }
+
+    /**
+     * @param mixed        $invalidKey
+     * @param class-string $exception
+     */
+    #[DataProvider('provideInvalidPrimaryKeyValues')]
+    public function testInsertWithInvalidPrimaryKeyWhenAutoIncrementDisabled(
+        $invalidKey,
+        string $exception,
+        string $exceptionMessage,
+    ): void {
+        $this->expectException($exception);
+        $this->expectExceptionMessage($exceptionMessage);
+
+        $insert = [
+            'key'   => $invalidKey,
+            'value' => 'some value',
+        ];
+
+        $this->createModel(WithoutAutoIncrementModel::class)->insert($insert);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @param mixed        $invalidKey
+     * @param class-string $exception
+     */
+    #[DataProvider('provideInvalidPrimaryKeyValues')]
+    public function testInsertBatchWithInvalidPrimaryKeyWhenAutoIncrementDisabled($invalidKey, string $exception, string $exceptionMessage): void
+    {
+        $this->expectException($exception);
+        $this->expectExceptionMessage($exceptionMessage);
+
+        $insertData = [
+            [
+                'key'   => 'valid_key_1',
+                'value' => 'value1',
+            ],
+            [
+                'key'   => $invalidKey,  // Invalid key in second row
+                'value' => 'value2',
+            ],
+        ];
+
+        $this->createModel(WithoutAutoIncrementModel::class)->insertBatch($insertData);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @return iterable<string, array{mixed, class-string, string}>
+     */
+    public static function provideInvalidPrimaryKeyValues(): iterable
+    {
+        return [
+            'null' => [
+                null,
+                DataException::class,
+                'There is no primary key defined when trying to make insert',
+            ],
+            '0 integer' => [
+                0,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: 0 is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            "'0' string" => [
+                '0',
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '0' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'empty string' => [
+                '',
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'true' => [
+                true,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean true is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'false' => [
+                false,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean false is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'array with null' => [
+                [null],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: only a single value is allowed, not an array.',
+            ],
+            'array with 0 integer' => [
+                [0],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: only a single value is allowed, not an array.',
+            ],
+            "array with '0' string" => [
+                ['0'],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: only a single value is allowed, not an array.',
+            ],
+            'array with empty array' => [
+                [[]],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: only a single value is allowed, not an array.',
+            ],
+        ];
+    }
 }
diff --git a/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php b/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
index a9380f34c771..94f8df12ea73 100644
--- a/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
+++ b/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DatabaseException;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DataException;
+use CodeIgniter\Database\RawSql;
 use CodeIgniter\Entity\Entity;
 use CodeIgniter\Exceptions\InvalidArgumentException;
 use Config\Database;
@@ -107,6 +108,16 @@ public function testUpdateArray(): void
         $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['id' => 2, 'name' => 'Foo Bar']);
     }
 
+    public function testUpdateWithRawSql(): void
+    {
+        $this->createModel(UserModel::class);
+
+        // RawSql objects should be allowed as primary key values
+        $result = $this->model->update(new RawSql('1'), ['name' => 'RawSql User']);
+        $this->assertTrue($result);
+        $this->seeInDatabase('user', ['id' => 1, 'name' => 'RawSql User']);
+    }
+
     public function testUpdateResultFail(): void
     {
         // WARNING this value will persist! take care to roll it back.
@@ -550,7 +561,8 @@ public function testUpdateWithSetAndEscape(): void
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param false|null $id
+     * @param bool|int|string|null $id
+     * @param class-string         $exception
      */
     #[DataProvider('provideUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause')]
     public function testUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id, string $exception, string $exceptionMessage): void
@@ -561,21 +573,79 @@ public function testUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id, string $
         // $useSoftDeletes = false
         $this->createModel(JobModel::class);
 
-        $this->model->update($id, ['name' => 'Foo Bar']); // @phpstan-ignore argument.type
+        $this->model->update($id, ['name' => 'Foo Bar']);
     }
 
+    /**
+     * @return iterable<string, array{mixed, class-string, string}>
+     */
     public static function provideUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause(): iterable
     {
         yield from [
-            [
+            'null' => [
                 null,
                 DatabaseException::class,
                 'Updates are not allowed unless they contain a "where" or "like" clause.',
             ],
-            [
+            'false' => [
                 false,
                 InvalidArgumentException::class,
-                'update(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.',
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean false is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'true' => [
+                true,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean true is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            '0 integer' => [
+                0,
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: 0 is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            "'0' string" => [
+                '0',
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '0' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'empty string' => [
+                '',
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'empty array' => [
+                [],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: cannot be an empty array.',
+            ],
+            'nested array' => [
+                [[1, 2]],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key at index 0: nested arrays are not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'array with null' => [
+                [1, null, 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: NULL is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            'array with 0' => [
+                [1, 0, 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: 0 is not allowed.',
+            ],
+            "array with '0'" => [
+                [1, '0', 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '0' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'array with empty string' => [
+                [1, '', 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                "Invalid primary key: '' is not allowed.",
+            ],
+            'array with boolean' => [
+                [1, false, 3],
+                InvalidArgumentException::class,
+                'Invalid primary key: boolean false is not allowed.',
             ],
         ];
     }
diff --git a/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst b/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst
index 70b27b15a600..05b667d68fda 100644
--- a/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst
+++ b/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst
@@ -40,6 +40,46 @@ The ``insertBatch()`` and ``updateBatch()`` methods now honor model settings lik
 ``updateOnlyChanged`` and ``allowEmptyInserts``. This change ensures consistent handling
 across all insert/update operations.
 
+Primary Key Validation
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+The ``insert()`` and ``insertBatch()`` (when ``useAutoIncrement`` is disabled), ``update()``,
+and ``delete()`` methods now validate primary key values **before** executing database queries.
+Invalid primary key values will now throw ``InvalidArgumentException`` instead of
+``DatabaseException``.
+
+**What changed:**
+
+- **Exception type:** Invalid primary keys now throw ``InvalidArgumentException`` with
+  specific error messages instead of generic ``DatabaseException`` from the database layer.
+- **Validation timing:**
+
+    - For ``update()`` and ``delete()``: Validation happens **before** the ``beforeUpdate``/``beforeDelete``
+      events and before any database queries are executed.
+    - For ``insert()`` and ``insertBatch()`` (when auto-increment is disabled): Validation happens
+      **after** the ``beforeInsert`` event but **before** database queries are executed.
+
+- **Invalid values:** The following values are now explicitly rejected as primary keys:
+
+    - ``null`` (for insert when auto-increment is disabled)
+    - ``0`` (integer zero)
+    - ``'0'`` (string zero)
+    - ``''`` (empty string)
+    - ``true`` and ``false`` (booleans)
+    - ``[]`` (empty array)
+    - Nested arrays (e.g., ``[[1, 2]]``)
+    - Arrays containing any of the above invalid values
+
+  **Note:** ``RawSql`` objects are allowed as primary key values for complex scenarios
+  where you need to use raw SQL expressions.
+
+This change improves error reporting by providing specific validation messages
+(e.g., "Invalid primary key: 0 is not allowed") instead of generic database errors, and
+prevents invalid queries from reaching the database.
+
+If you need to allow some of these values for the primary key, you can override the
+``validateID()`` method in your model.
+
 Entity
 ------
 
diff --git a/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst b/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst
index c9be9878e094..f1383b45f803 100644
--- a/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst
+++ b/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst
@@ -648,6 +648,19 @@ converted to strings with the format defined in ``dateFormat['datetime']`` and
 .. note:: Prior to v4.5.0, the date/time formats were hard coded as ``Y-m-d H:i:s``
     and ``Y-m-d`` in the Model class.
 
+Primary Key Validation
+----------------------
+
+.. versionadded:: 4.7.0
+
+The ``insert()``, ``insertBatch()`` (when `$useAutoIncrement`_ is ``false``), ``update()``,
+and ``delete()`` methods validate primary key values before executing database queries.
+Invalid values such as ``null``, ``0``, ``'0'``, empty strings, booleans, empty arrays,
+or nested arrays will throw an ``InvalidArgumentException`` with a specific error message.
+
+If you need to customize this behavior (e.g., to allow ``0`` as a valid primary key for
+legacy systems), you can override the ``validateID()`` method in your model.
+
 Deleting Data
 =============
 
diff --git a/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon b/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon
index 50220a8e8989..611842cc1be2 100644
--- a/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon
+++ b/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-# total 2708 errors
+# total 2706 errors
 
 includes:
     - argument.type.neon
diff --git a/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon b/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon
index 9d944d2ed357..b7be6baeffff 100644
--- a/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon
+++ b/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-# total 1320 errors
+# total 1318 errors
 
 parameters:
     ignoreErrors:
@@ -5797,11 +5797,6 @@ parameters:
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/I18n/TimeTest.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Models\\DeleteModelTest\:\:emptyPkValues\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type iterable\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../tests/system/Models/DeleteModelTest.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Models\\FindModelTest\:\:provideAggregateAndGroupBy\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type iterable\.$#'
             count: 1
@@ -5822,11 +5817,6 @@ parameters:
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/TimestampModelTest.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Models\\UpdateModelTest\:\:provideUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type iterable\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Publisher\\PublisherRestrictionsTest\:\:provideDefaultPublicRestrictions\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type iterable\.$#'
             count: 1
diff --git a/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.property.neon b/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.property.neon
index 48a8f1e1f48d..139386d26a14 100644
--- a/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.property.neon
+++ b/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.property.neon
@@ -243,82 +243,82 @@ parameters:
             path: ../../tests/system/Database/Live/MySQLi/NumberNativeTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:194\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:196\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:288\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest\.php\:290\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/InsertModelTest.php
 
@@ -393,122 +393,122 @@ parameters:
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/SaveModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:199\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:210\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:218\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:229\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$_options has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$country has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$created_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$deleted has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$email has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$id has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$name has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
 
         -
-            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:353\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
+            message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Entity\\Entity@anonymous/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest\.php\:364\:\:\$updated_at has no type specified\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php